"Evidence-based practices in classroom management" (Simonsen, et al.)

Simonsen, Brandi, et al. "Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice." Education and Treatment of Children 31.3 (2008): 351-380.

Evidence-based classroom-management practices: (a) maximize structure; (b) post, teach, re­view, monitor, and reinforce expectations; (c) actively engage students in observable ways; (d) use a continuum of strategies for responding to appropriate behaviors; and (e) use a continuum of strategies to re­spond to inappropriate behaviors.

Maximize Structure. Structure refers to the amount of teacher or adult-directed activity, the extent to which routines are explicitly defined, and the design or physical arrangement of the classroom...In general, classrooms with more structure have been shown to promote more appropriate academic and social behaviors...Research indicates that the classroom should be designed to minimize crowding and distraction...The simplest way to minimize crowding is to increase the amount of space in a classroom...In addition to increasing physical space, teachers should minimize distraction...classrooms with more walls (visual dividers) are associated with less teacher distraction in general, less student distraction from noise, more student satisfaction, and less restriction of classroom activities.

Students in high structure classrooms exhibited greater task involvement, friendlier peer interactions, more helpful behaviors (e.g., cleaning up after free play), more attentive behavior (e.g., paying attention during circle time), and less aggression.

Post, teach, re­view, monitor, and reinforce expectations. "Establishing expectations includes identifying and defining a small number of positively stated expectations, or rules, that are broad enough to include all desired behavior and are mutually exclusive (e.g., Be Safe, Be Responsible, Be Respectful). The identified expectations are posted and are explicitly and systematically taught to students. Frequent review is also provided, and the teacher monitors or actively supervises students. Active supervision is characterized by a teacher moving, looking around, interacting with students, correcting any errors made by students (i.e., behavior that is inconsistent with expectations), and providing reinforcement for behavior that is consistent with expectations."

Evidence base. Posting, teaching, and reviewing expectations (i.e., social skills) and providing feedback are associated with (a) decreases in off-task behavior and disruptive behavior (i.e., talking out) and (b) increases in academic engagement, leadership, and conflict resolution. Pairing rule instruction with feedback and reinforcement leads to the largest gains

[T]he introduction of active supervision produced a classroom-wide decrease in minor behavioral incidents. Additionally, the use of similar supervision techniques resulted in higher levels of active participation (moderate to vigorous physical activity) in a physical education class. Furthermore, a study...found that the degree of active supervision-and not the supervisor to student ratio-accounted for the most variance in problem behavior in non-classroom transition settings. 

Actively engage students in observable ways. "Engagement is a  general term that refers to how a student participates during classroom instruction, and is comprised of passive (e.g., listening to a teacher) and active (e.g., writing, answering a  question) behaviors...[E]ngagement [is] the best mediating variable between instruction and academic achievement; if students are actively engaged in instruction, then it is difficult to engage in incompatible behaviors (e.g., talking out, out of seat). Teachers can increase active engagement, for example, by increasing students' opportunities to respond, utilizing direct instruction techniques, implementing peer tutoring, utilizing computer-based instruction, and providing guided notes."

1. An opportunity to respond (OTR) is a  teacher behavior that prompts or solicits a student response (e.g., asking a  question, presenting a demand). Two common methods used to increase the rate of presenting OTRs in a  classroom include choral responding (Le., students answering a question in unison) and response cards (Le., erasable boards on which all students write their answers to a question and then hold the boards up for the teacher to see). 
2. Direct instruction is an approach to classroom teaching characterized by clear presentation of content (e.g., use of signals), carefully sequenced (i.e., components and sub-components of skills are seamlessly and progressively presented) and supported instruction (e.g., prompts are added and systematically faded out), high rates of OTRs, judicious review of content, systematic feedback (i.e., specific praise or planned error corrections), initial and ongoing assessment of student progress and placement, and students learning concepts and skills to mastery. More specifically, direct instruction involves the teacher first modeling, then leading students through content, and finally testing student knowledge of presented content. 
3. In classwide peer tutoring (CWPT), students are paired and assigned the roles of tutor and tutee. Students provide each other with instruction, often via rapid response trials or paired reading practice, and give each other immediate error corrections. The classroom teacher is afforded freedom to move around the classroom and assist student pairs in need of additional help. 
4. Computer assisted instruction (CAl) uses technology to provide students with the benefits of one-on-one instruction (e.g., frequent opportunities to respond, immediate corrective feedback, material tailored to the appropriate instructional level) without leaving the larger classroom. 
5. Guided notes are teacher-provided outlines of either lectures or chapters that contain the main ideas and spaces for students to fill in additional details. Heward and Orlansky (1993) explain, "guided notes take advantage of one of the most consistent and important findings in recent educational research: students who make frequent, relevant responses during a lesson learn more than students who are passive observers."

A functional relationship has been demonstrated between increasing the pace with which teachers presented students with opportunities to respond and a(n) (a) increase in on-task behavior, (b) increase in academic engagement, (c) decrease in disruptive behavior, and (d) increase in the number of correct responses. In addition, the use of choral responding is associated with small, yet positive effects on academic achievement and on-task behavior ; similarly, the use of response cards is associated with an increase in student responses, on-task behavior, and academic achievement.

[W]hen compared to students receiving traditional instruction, students receiving direct instruction demonstrated significantly greater gains in academic achievement.

Classwide peer-tutoring programs have been shown to improve both academic engagement and reading achievement. Furthermore, the use of CWPT has been shown to lead to a decrease in off-task behavior as well as an increase in academic performance for students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

The use of computer assisted instruction (CAl) has been shown to affect an increase in both active engagement time and on-task behav­ ior for students with AD/HD.

The use of guided notes during lectures and readings resulted in an increase in academic achievement.

Use a continuum of strategies for responding to appropriate behaviors. A continuum of strategies to acknowledge appropri­ate behavior refers to a range of evidence-based strategies that focus on identifying and recognizing appropriate classroom behavior. The continuum should include the use of simple (i.e., contingent specific praise) as well as more complex (Le., class-wide group contingencies) strategies to acknowledge displays of appropriate behavior. The fol­lowing four strategies are supported by evidence.

1. Specific, contingent praise is a positive statement, typically provided by the teacher, when a  desired behavior occurs (contingent) to inform students specifically what they did well. 
2. Group reinforcement contingencies are employed when a common expectation is set for a group of learners and a common positive outcome is earned by engaging in the expected behavior. Three main types of group contingencies are described in the literature: (a) dependent (the outcome for the whole group depends on the behavior of a  smaller subset of that group), (b) interdependent (the outcome for the whole group depends on the behavior of all students), and (c) independent (the outcome of each student depends on his or her behavior). 
3. Behavior contracts are written documents that specify a contingency (relationship between behavior and consequence). That is, a  behavior contract defines the expected behavior and outcomes for engaging or not engaging in expected behavior. 
4. Token economies are used when students earn tokens (e.g., points, poker chips, etc.), contingent upon desired behavior, that can be cashed in for a back-up reinforcer (e.g., desired items, activities, attention from preferred people, etc.).

Empirical evidence supports the use of multiple classroom management strategies implemented either individually or in conjunctionwith one another...Delivering contingent praise for academic behavior increased participants' (a) correct responses, (b) work productivity and accuracy...Delivering contingent praise for appropriate social behavior increased participants' (a) on-task behavior, (b) student attention, (c) compliance, (d) positive self-referent statements, and (e) cooperative play. The effects of praise may be bolstered when the praise is specific (Le., describes the desired behavior) and used i~ conjunction with other strategies.

Group contingencies and token economies have broad evidential support when used in classroom settings;  their use: (a) increased positive and decreased negative verbal interactions; (b) decreased transition time; (c) increased achievement, appropriate classroom behavior, and peer social acceptance; (d) increased student attention; (e) decreased inappropriate behavior; (f) decreased talk-outs and out-of-seat behavior; and (g) increased student preparedness for class and assignment completion. The effectiveness of group reinforcement contingencies and token economies is strengthened when paired with a continuum of other classroom management strategies.

Similar to group reinforcement contingencies, the use of behavior contracts that define expected behaviors and associated consequences was related to (a) increased student productivity, (b) increased on-task behavior and daily assignment completion, (c) improved school grades, and (d) improved student self-control.

Use a continuum of strategies to re­spond to inappropriate behaviors. Strategies that decrease the likelihood of inappropriate behavior.

1. Brief, contingent, and specific error correction refers to an informative statement, typically provided by the teacher, that is given when an undesired behavior occurs (contingent), states the observed behavior, and tells the student exactly what they should do in the future in a brief, concise manner. These statements also are referred to as "explicit reprimands." [Error corrections or reprimands that were loud in tone were less effective than quiet or discreet corrections. Further, error corrections that were brief (I.e., 1 to 2 words) were more effective than longer error corrections (e.e., 2 or more phrases), and corrections that were delivered consistently were superior to those delivered inconsistently.]
2. Performance feedback is similar to error correction. Students are provided. with data (e.g., charts, graphs, reports) regarding their engagement in target behaviors. Teachers assist students in visually analyzing changes in their performance. Teachers specify a certain target behavioral criterion for students to meet (e.g., transitions under 2 minutes for 3  days or less than 3  office referrals in a  month) and a  reward if the criterion is met. Performance feedback can also be used to track positive behaviors (e.g., oral reading fluency rates or positive school-wide acknowledgements). 
3. Differential reinforcement is contingent reinforcement when a student engages in (a) low rates of an undesired behavior, (b) behaviors other than undesired behaviors (i.e., zero occurrences of undesired behavior), (c) an alternative behavior (a specific behavior chosen to replace the undesired behavior), or (d) an incompatible behavior (a behavior that is  physically impossible to emit at the same time as the undesired behavior). These procedures consist of varied adaptations of positive reinforcement strategies, focusing on increasing desired behavior to decrease the likelihood that undesired behavior will occur in the future.
4. Planned ignoring occurs when a teacher systematically withholds attention from (ignores) a student when she or he exhibits undesired behavior. The effectiveness of planned ignoring is directly related to the degree to which teacher attention is a positive reinforcer maintaining undesired behavior. 
5. Response cost is a procedure employed when a stimulus (e.g., token) is removed, contingent upon a student engaging in undesired behavior. The effectiveness of response cost is related to (a) the reinforcement value of the tokens and the back-up reinforcers and (b) the degree (rate and schedule) to which the student can earn and accumulate contingent tokens. 
6. Time out from reinforcement is a  procedure employed when a student is removed from a  reinforcing environment (e.g., play structure with peers) to a  less reinforcing environment (e.g., empty classroom), contingent upon an undesired behavior (e.g:, hitting a peer).

With regard to social behavior, providing direct, brief, and explicit error corrections or reprimqnds following undesired behavior decreased such behavior. Error corrections or reprimands that were loud in tone were less effective than quiet or discreet corrections. Further, error corrections that were brief (i.e., 1 to 2 words) were more effective than longer error corrections (i.e., 2 or more phrases), and corrections that were delivered consistently were superior to those delivered inconsistently. 

Providing systematic performance feedback regarding target social behaviors for a classroom of students led to an increase in appropriate behavior of all students, as compared to a control classroom. Publicly posting feedback, in addition to other strategies, has been shown to (a) decrease the frequency of target behaviors; (b) decrease classroom transition times; and (c) increase pro-social and academic behaviors such as on-task behavior, self-€steem, reading, spelling, and writing. 

Differential reinforcement procedures can improve overall appropriate behavior while reducing inappropriate behavior. Similarly, planned ignoring, in combination with other strategies (e.g., establishing rules and praising appropriate behavior) was associated with increases in appropriate social and study behavior. 

Response cost procedures have been demonstrated to result in a decrease in swearing, aggressive behavior and inappropriate behavior. Time outfrom reinforcement also has been demonstrated to decrease inappropriate behavior.